DIA, 2010-2011: estudos do AAWSAP sobre energia do vácuo propõem sensores para detectar “plataformas aeroespaciais anômalas”

UNCLASSIFIED//[FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY, struck through] Defense Intelligence Reference Document Acquisition Threat Support 6 April 2010 ICOD: 1 December 2009 DIA-08-1004-007 Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum

Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum Prepared by: Acquisition Support Division (DWO-3) Defense Warning Office Directorate for Analysis Defense Intelligence Agency Author: AAP Person 58 Administrative Note COPYRIGHT WARNING: Further dissemination of the photographs in this publication is not authorized. This product is one in a series of advanced technology reports produced in FY 2009 under the Defense Intelligence Agency, Defense Warning Office's Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications (AAWSA) Program. Comments or questions pertaining to this document should be addressed to [AAP Person 1], AAWSA Program Manager, Defense Intelligence Agency, ATTN: CLAR/DWO-3, Bldg 6000, Washington, DC 20340-5100.

Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum I. Summary Quantum theory predicts that the vacuum of space throughout the universe is filled with electromagnetic waves, random in phase and amplitude, propagating in all possible directions, and with a cubic frequency distribution. This differs from the cosmic microwave background radiation and is referred to as the electromagnetic quantum vacuum, which is the lowest energy state of otherwise empty space. When integrated over all frequency modes up to the Planck frequency, νP (~10^43 Hertz [Hz]), it represents an energy density of as much as 10^113 J/m^3, which is far in excess of any other known energy source, even if only an infinitesimal fraction of it is accessible. Even if one is constrained to integrate over all frequency modes only up to the nucleon Compton frequency (~10^23 Hz),[1] this energy density is still enormous (~10^35 J/m^3). In addition, the electromagnetic quantum vacuum is not alone; it intimately couples to the charged particles in the Dirac sea of virtual fermion particle-antiparticle pairs (aka the Dirac vacuum) and thereby couples to the other interactions inherent in the Standard Model (weak and strong force vacua). However, in the Standard Model of particle physics, the weak force vacuum is essentially the electromagnetic vacuum, because photons serve as the massless eigenstates of (unified) electroweak theory with an "effective" coupling constant that is in fact electromagnetic in strength.[2] And we can safely ignore any coupling of the quantum electromagnetic vacuum to the quantum chromodynamic vacuum in this paper because the latter coexists in two phases: (1) the ordinary vacuum exterior to the hadron, which is impenetrable to quark color, and (2) the vacuum interior of the hadron,[3] in which the Yang-Mills fields that carry color (gluons) propagate freely. Both vacuum phases are separated by a boundary at the surface of the hadron on which the Yang-Mills and quark fields satisfy boundary conditions. Even though this zero-point field (ZPF) energy seems to be an inescapable consequence of quantum field theory, its energy density is so enormous as to make it difficult to reconcile. Instead, many quantum calculations subtract the ZPF energy by ad hoc means (for example, renormalization). However, the effects of the quantum vacuum ZPF that are responsible for a variety of well-known physical effects are observed, such as: Lamb shift. Spontaneous atomic emission. [1] The characteristic frequency associated with the size of nucleons. [2] The weak force coupling constant is merely the quantum electrodynamic/electromagnetic coupling constant (i.e., the fine structure constant, a) that is "suppressed" by a simple inverse-quadratic ratio of the virtual weak force particle mass to the proton mass (a factor of 10^-4). [3] Hadrons are the class of strongly interacting elementary particles which are a bound state of quarks. This class of particles has two subclasses: baryons (e.g., protons and neutrons comprised of three quarks) and mesons (comprised of two quarks). Low-temperature van der Waals forces. Casimir effect. Source of photon shot and fluctuating radiation-pressure noise in lasers. • Astronomically observed cosmological constant (aka dark energy, a form of Casimir energy according to the Schwinger-DeWitt quantum ether prescription [ Reference 1-4]). Rather than eliminate the ZPF energy from the equations, there is much left to be learned by exploring the possibility that it is a real energy, From this perspective, the ordinary world of matter and energy is like foam atop the quantum vacuum sea. If the ZPF is real, then there is the possibility that it can be tapped as a source of power or be harnessed to generate a propulsive force for space travel. This notion of exchanging energy with the quantum vacuum is the focus of this paper. An aircraft propeller or jet engine can push air backwards to propel the aircraft forward. A ship or boat propeller does the same thing in water. On Earth there is air or water to push against. But a rocket in space has no material medium to push against, and so it needs to carry and eject propellant in order to provide momentum. A deep-space rocket must start out with all the propellant it will ever require, and this quickly results in the need to carry additional propellant just to propel the propellant. The breakthrough desired in space travel is to eliminate the need to carry propellant at all, that is, to generate a propulsive force without carrying and ejecting propellant?

VI. Conclusion: The Way Forward What are the conclusions that can be drawn from the considerations presented in this report regarding the concept of continuous conversion of energy from the quantum electromagnetic vacuum, the Dirac vacuum, or even the QCD vacua? First, one sees that although the original inspiration for the concept of continuous vacuum energy extraction came from second-quantized QED theory, it must be acknowledged that QED, as an axiomatic, quantized formalism based on the concept of an immutable, non-degradable vacuum, does not support the concept of continuous vacuum energy conversion. Given that second-quantized QED is our most comprehensive quantum theory to date, its lack of support for continuous vacuum energy conversion must be given serious consideration. Second, SED as an alternative theory, whose formalism has been taken to support the concept of continuous vacuum energy conversion, has enough shortcomings in its current state of development that one must conclude that it is not at present an adequate tool for the assessment of potential vacuum energy conversion. SED predictions must thus remain suspect in the absence of experimental confirmation. The purpose of the experimental program outlined in Section IV is meant to address this need. Third, the concept of the conversion of energy from vacuum fluctuations is in principle not falsifiable, given the unknowns which present theory has yet to resolve (for example, cosmological dark energy, multiple vacuum structures), and the numerous approaches currently being brought to bear in the development of quantum theory. Finally, even though experimental efforts at energy extraction from the vacuum have been proposed or are already under way at various laboratories, definitive theoretical support underpinning the concept of useful extraction of energy from quantum fluctuations is not yet in place. Such support awaits theoretical developments that either posits a plenum that (unlike second-quantized QED) can be shown to be degradable, or posit conversion of energy associated with matter fluctuations, also in a degradable fashion. Since the quantum fluctuations of interest are associated with quantum ground states, what is minimally required are particle-vacuum or particle-particle interactions that result in the formation of alternate lower-energy, ground states of matter/field configurations. Suggested approaches to be explored are those which are known to yield results consistent with the existence of vacuum fluctuation fields, but without the formalism of independently postulated second-quantized vacuum fields. Whether useful conversion of energy from quantum fluctuations can be accomplished, and identifying the unequivocal conditions under which this can be achieved, are yet to be determined. It has been shown that the QED vacuum is in fact degradable under the action of a variety of Casimir effects, quantum optical vacuum squeezing, gravitation-induced vacuum squeezing, or gravitational redshifting. There is also QED vacuum decay via the critical/supercritical electric fields of superheavy atomic nuclei, X-ray free-electron lasers, or externally applied (non-critical) magnetic fields. However, it is not known whether these effects can be exploited for the continuous extraction of useful energy from the vacuum. The concept of a dual, degradable vacuum structure in QCD can possibly lead to the generation of useful energy via the release of latent heat from melting the QCD vacuum. A game changer may appear that could dramatically accelerate or alter the direction of theoretical and experimental programs. Such a game changer could entail a complete, comprehensive unified field theory (that is, a finalized quantum superstring theory, or some other theory that replaces it), or a completely new theory for the quantum vacuum and its related spacetime physics (for example, "emergent" spacetime/gravity theories (Reference 109-111)), New materials or combinations of materials, such as condensed matter (superconductors), semiconductors or metamaterials, would also be an important game changer because of the unique ways that quantum fields would interact with them to produce phenomena of interest. In going forward to the potential demonstration of continuous energy extraction from the vacuum, one should consider the following additional action items for further R&D: • The quantum vacuum electromagnetic effects outlined in Section IV were computed to scale with Planck's constant and are therefore very small. In order to have a practical device based on quantum vacuum properties, it would be preferable that the vacuum effects the scale, meaning that the effects are essentially independent of Plank's constant and consequently may be much larger. By itself this requirement does not guarantee a large enough magnitude, but it certainly helps. Electromagnetic Casimir effects are typically small and difficult to measure. In fact, measurements have only been made for simple geometries such as the parallel plate or the sphere-plate geometries. This fact raises a question: Is it possible to amplify these effects and bring them into a useful range? This is certainly one of the challenges of vacuum engineering. The experiment described in Section IV could address this question. • Experiments are needed to explore some of the issues that are beyond the present computational ability of QED; for example, the effect of complex geometries on vacuum forces, or the effect of interacting or externally applied fields or dense, moving nuclear matter on the quantum vacuum. Is it possible to make a stable vacuum field that has a large variation in energy density? Can energy density gradients be found on a length scale that is useful for technological applications? One needs to greatly increase our knowledge of the quantum vacuum. The development of a very sensitive small probe that provides a frequency decomposition of the local vacuum energy density would very useful. - A first step in this direction was recently proposed by Marecki (Reference 112) who generalized the analysis of the output of balanced homodyne detectors (BHDs). The most important feature of these devices is their ability to quantify the quantum vacuum fluctuations of the electric field because the output of BHDs provides information on the one- and two-point functions of arbitrary states of quantum fields. Marecki computed the two-point function and the associated spectral density for the ground state of the quantum electric field in Casimir geometries, and predicts a position- and frequency-dependent pattern of BHD responses if a device of this type is placed inside a Casimir cavity. The proposed device allows for the direct detection of quantum vacuum fluctuations and provides a spatial mapping of the vacuum energy contained inside the cavity. This offers a potential new characterization of ground states in Casimir geometries, which would provide an understanding of the vacuum energy densities present in some regions in these geometries. • From the status of current research in Casimir forces, it is clear that one is at the cusp of describing the properties of the quantum vacuum for real systems with real material properties. For example, there is no general agreement regarding the calculations of static vacuum forces for geometries other than infinite parallel plates of ideal or real metals at a temperature of absolute zero. Non-zero temperature corrections for flat, real metals are uncertain. There are fundamental disagreements about the computation of vacuum forces for spheres or rectangular cavities, and about how to handle real material properties and curvature in these and other geometries. Indeed, it is very difficult to calculate Casimir forces for these simple geometries and to relate the calculations to an experiment. Calculations have yet to be done for more complex geometries. The usual problems in QED (for example, divergences due to unrealistic boundary conditions, to curvature, to interfaces with different dielectric coefficients) abound. These problems require theoretical and experimental resolution. • As stated in Section V, there is need to find new boundary conditions for the vacuum that can alter the vacuum energy density by orders of magnitude more than with the current boundary conditions, which are primarily metallic or dielectric surfaces. Perhaps the use of new materials (for example, those with a negative index of refraction, or an ultra-high electrical carrier density, either steady state or transient), or novel condensed matter (superconducting) materials may open the door to new Casimir phenomena. Recently the use of (negative index) metamaterials was proposed to make a repulsive Casimir force (Reference 113). With significantly increased funding for research, some breakthroughs in this area might be possible. • There are several important experiments that can aid our understanding of vacuum energy and Casimir forces that may lead to significant improvements in our engineering capability: - Experiments measuring the Casimir forces for semiconductor surfaces would be helpful in the development of new applications of vacuum forces and to demonstrate that it is possible to alter the Casimir force by altering the carrier density. - The measurement of Casimir forces and energies for different geometry and composition objects, such as rectangular cavities or spheres, would provide data for theoretical modeling. Measurements of Casimir forces between separate, nonplanar surfaces are also needed. There may be surfaces that have larger forces than the classic parallel plates. - New boundary conditions or new methods of modifying the known quantum vacuum boundary conditions may be needed to generate the large changes in free-field vacuum energy required if "vacuum engineering" as proposed in this report is ever to become practical. For example, the vacuum energy density difference between parallel plates and the region outside them in free space is simply not large enough in magnitude for large-scale engineering purposes. Energy densities, positive or negative, that are orders of magnitude greater are required. Such energy density regions may be possible, at least in some cases. For example, a region appeared in the one-dimensional dynamic system in which the energy density was below that of the Casimir parallel plate region (Reference 114). - Experiments to verify the adiabatic Casimir effect have been suggested in the literature. This is an important theoretical issue that has ramifications in different fields, including astrophysics and elementary particle physics. Clever experimental approaches should be developed to explore the adiabatic Casimir effect. • There are numerous potential ways in which the ground state of the vacuum electromagnetic field might be engineered for use in MEMS and NEMS applications. • Dirac vacuum decay via external (non-critical) magnetic fields requires further evaluation, and it should become possible to experimentally test this in the laboratory within two to five years. • Theoretical and laboratory studies of the dual QCD vacuum have been underway for over 20 years. The progress in experimental particle physics is such that one gains an order of magnitude in the resolution (that is, energy) of elementary particle structures roughly every decade. It is hoped that the commissioning of the Large Hadron Collider will lead to higher resolution probing of the dual QCD vacuum structure, and help to determine whether there are deeper grand unified and/or Higgs vacuum structures residing within quarks. Future accelerator experiments should be designed to explore Rafelski and Muller's and Gogohia's proposal to extract energy from the "melted" QCD vacuum.

UNCLASSIFIED//[FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY, struck through] Defense Intelligence Reference Document Defense Futures 11 January 2011 ICOD: 10 August 2010 DIA-08-1102-007 Quantum Tomography of Negative Energy States in the Vacuum

Quantum Tomography of Negative Energy States in the Vacuum The Defense Intelligence Reference Document provides non-substantive but authoritative reference information related to intelligence topics or methodologies. Prepared by: Technology Warning Division (DWO-4) Defense Warning Office Directorate for Analysis Defense Intelligence Agency Author: AAP Person 58 COPYRIGHT WARNING: Further dissemination of the photographs in this publication is not authorized. This product is one of a series of advanced technology reports produced in FY 2010 under the Defense Intelligence Agency, Defense Warning Office's Advanced Aerospace Weapons System Applications (AAWSA) Program. Comments or questions pertaining to this document should be addressed to [AAP Person 1] AAWSA Program Manager, Defense Intelligence Agency, ATTN: JUIAF - DI/DWO-3, Bldg 6000, Washington, D.C. 20340-5100.

Quantum Tomography of Negative Energy States in the Vacuum Introduction Future aerospace vehicles could have an advanced propulsion system that uses negative quantum vacuum energy to modify the spacetime geometry in the immediate vicinity surrounding the vehicle in order to induce faster-than-l ight motion via traversable wormholes or warp drives, or even levitation via antigravity [1, 2]. These exotic propulsion concepts are well-known in mainstream general relativity and quantum field theory research. The notion of a physical state with negative energy is not familiar in the realm of classical physics. However, it is not rare in quantum field theory to have quantum states with negative energy density or a negative energy flux. Even for a quantum scalar field in the flat Minkowski spacetime, it can be proved that the existence of quantum states with negative energy density is inevitable [3]. Although all known forms of classical matter have non-negative energy density, it is not so in quantum field theory. A general quantum state can be a superposition of particle number eigenstates and may have a negative expectation value of energy density in certain spacetime regions due to quantum coherence effects [3]. These considerations remain true even for quantum fields in a curved spacetime where the effects of gravitational fields, or equivalently, accelerations, can be observed due to the mass of astronomical bodies or the motions of astronomical bodies. There are two key examples of specially prepared quantum vacuum states that are known to produce small amounts of negative energy density in the laboratory. These are the well-known Casimir effect and the squeezed vacuum states of the electromagnetic field. The former is a static quantum vacuum effect while the latter is a time-domain quantum vacuum effect. There are several other examples of special quantum vacuum or particle states that produce negative energy density, but they are beyond the scope of this report because they remain mathematical curiosities or are not practicable to implement in the laboratory in the foreseeable future. We already make small amounts of negative energy in the laboratory via the Casimir effect and squeezed electromagnetic vacuum states, but we do not yet know if we can access larger amounts for extended periods of time over extended spatial distributions for the purpose of modifying spacetime for aerospace propulsion applications. It will be necessary to first explore the quantum nature of the Casimir effect and squeezed electromagnetic vacuum states to determine whether we can measure and spatially map their negative energy density. This is a necessary first step to take before beginning any study on producing large quantities of negative energy because we will first need to know how to measure and spatially map negative energy in order to properly control it after producing it. This is the motivation for this report. We need to firm up our understanding of how lab detectors will respond to negative energy in situ. A first step in this direction was already taken by Hansen et al. [4] in 2001 for the time-domain negative energy pulses in squeezed electromagnetic vacuum states, and more recently Marecki [5, 6] generalized the analysis of the output of balanced homodyne detectors (BHDs) for the case of static negative energy states inside Casimir cavities. The most important feature of these devices is their ability to quantify the quantum vacuum fluctuations of the electric field because the output of BHDs provides information on the one- and two-point functions of arbitrary states of quantum fields. Marecki computed the two-point function and the associated spectral density for the ground state of the quantum electric field in Casimir geometries, and predicts a position- and frequency-dependent pattern of BHD responses if a device of this type is placed inside a Casimir cavity. The proposed device allows for the direct detection of quantum vacuum fluctuations and provides a spatial mapping of the negative energy contained inside the cavity, which will be summarized in this report.

CONCLUSION Future aerospace platforms may have propulsion systems that modify their surrounding spacetime geometry to implement faster-than-light spaceflight (via traversable wormholes or warp drives) or produce levitation via antigravity. To engineer such a modification of local spacetime requires the use of quantum sub-vacuum fluctuations and their associated sub-vacuum (or negative) energy density. There are two key examples of specially prepared quantum vacuum states that are known to produce small amounts of sub-vacuum (negative) energy density in the laboratory. These are the well-known Casimir effect and squeezed light. There are several other examples of special quantum vacuum states or particle states that produce sub-vacuum (negative) energy density, but they are still under theoretical study. We already make small amounts of sub-vacuum (negative) energy in the laboratory via the Casimir effect and squeezed light, but we do not yet know if we can access larger amounts for extended periods of time over extended spatial distributions. The Quantum Inequalities theorem suggests that producing large amounts of sub-vacuum (negative) energy in "deformed" vacuum states for extended periods of time in flat or curved spacetimes may not be possible. This claim remains as yet untested by experiment while several investigators have strong arguments showing the theorem is in error in these particular cases. Quantum optical homodyne tomography can detect and quantify the fluctuations in a variety of ("undisturbed") vacua as well as the sub-vacuum fluctuations found in both squeezed light and Casimir cavities. Squeezed light has time-dependent, alternating regions of sub-vacuum fluctuations (a.k.a. two-point functions) of the quantum electric field. Casimir geometries provide environments with non-trivial position- and frequency-dependent, time-independent, often sub-vacuum fluctuations (two-point functions) of the quantum electric field. Balanced homodyne detectors (BHD) with local oscillators are amplifiers that are capable of providing detailed measurements of the sub-vacuum fluctuations (the two- and n-point functions) of the states of the quantum electromagnetic field. Nearly a decade ago, Hansen et al. [4] reported on their experimental time-domain (or pulsed) BHD device that they developed to make precise measurements of the quantum electric field quadratures of pulsed optical quantum states (e.g., squeezed light). A master laser produced the local oscillator for this device. The device demonstrated a high level of common mode suppression and low electronic noise, which provided large enough signal-to-noise ratio to measure the quantum noise of individual pulses. The device exhibited over 90% quantum efficiency. However, their device was not designed to directly measure the energy density of the individual pulses. We recommend that a research and development program be implemented to modify the design and operation of the time-domain BHD device in order provide this important data. It will be necessary to develop and commercialize a portable time-domain BHD device for the purpose of detecting, measuring, and spatially mapping the sub-vacuum (negative) energy regions produced by a putative pulsed (or "AC") negative energy generator that might be used for engineering the spacetime surrounding an aerospace platform for propulsion purposes. A number of modified time-domain BHD devices could also be assembled in a sensor array for surveillance and detection of any anomalous aerospace platforms that might use engineered spacetime effects for propulsion. What has not been experimentally measured yet are the sub-vacuum fluctuations and their corresponding sub-vacuum (negative) energy density inside a Casimir cavity. Casimir cavities produce static, or time-independent, sub-vacuum fluctuations and (negative) energy density. Marecki [5, 6] proposed a modified BHD and computed the two-point function and the associated spectral density for the ground state of the quantum electric field in Casimir geometries, and predicted a position- and frequency-dependent pattern of BHD responses if a device of this type is placed inside a Casimir cavity. He discovered that by exploiting a trick with the subtraction of the output of two balanced photodiodes, it is possible to quantify and map the sub-vacuum fluctuations of the quantum field and its corresponding energy density inside the cavity. His modified BHD design uses the electric field of the TEl mode of the Casimir cavity as the local oscillator. Marecki also discovered that the sub-vacuum (negative) energy density regions inside a Casimir cavity violate the Quantum Inequalities theorem. We recommend that an experimental program be implemented to test Marecki's modified BHD and his predictions for Casimir geometries. Using this device to also test the efficacy of the Quantum Inequalities theorem is a necessary part of the proposed experimental program. If such experiments are successful, then it will be necessary to follow up by implementing a program to develop and commercialize a portable "modified-Marecki BHD" device for the purpose of detecting, measuring, and spatially mapping the sub-vacuum (negative) energy regions produced by a putative static (or "DC") negative energy generator that would be used for engineering the spacetime surrounding an aerospace platform for propulsion purposes. Because the Casimir effect and its associated negative energy are incredibly feeble, such putative propulsion systems will not involve the use of Casimir cavities to produce a free-space distribution of negative energy surrounding the platform. Therefore, a modified-Marecki BHD will require a high quality laser for the local oscillator and the photodiodes are allowed to be much larger in size. A number of modified-Marecki BHD devices could also be assembled in a sensor array for surveillance and detection of any anomalous aerospace platforms that might use engineered spacetime effects for propulsion.